In this blog post, we will examine how the Scientific Revolution, industrialization, and the spread of imperialism led to the global dominance of Western powers, and how colonial nations came to be oppressed in the process.
From the time Homo sapiens first appeared tens of thousands of years ago to the present, humanity has achieved remarkable progress. In the early days of human existence, people had to live under the daily threat of survival, but through the Cognitive Revolution, the Agricultural Revolution, and the Scientific Revolution, they eventually rose to the top of the ecological food chain. While human history has seen countless changes, it was the Scientific Revolution—which gained full momentum after the 17th century—that most dramatically accelerated the pace of human development. Combined with the Industrial Revolution, the development of financial systems, and advances in maritime technology, the Scientific Revolution transformed human society into something entirely different from what it had been before. However, these developments did not bring about scientific achievements alone. The Scientific Revolution and industrialization laid the foundation for modern imperialism, and European nations—particularly those in Western Europe, which had previously remained relatively on the periphery compared to the major powers of Asia—began large-scale explorations into the unknown world, driven by advances in science and technology. As a result, Europeans discovered new sea routes and continents, which they used to expand their trade networks while simultaneously beginning to conquer various regions. Spurred by these developments, European nations competitively threw themselves into exploration and conquest, and imperialism gradually spread throughout the Western world. Ultimately, much of Africa, as well as Asia, Oceania, and numerous other regions, came under the colonial rule or sphere of influence of the Western powers.
Why did the nations of Asia and Africa become colonies of Western powers as European nations joined the ranks of imperialism one by one? According to ‘Sapiens’ by historian and author Yuval Noah Harari, this difference was not simply a matter of technological advancement. Harari explains that it was not only technology but also the political and economic institutions, social structures, and shared myths and values that Western societies had developed over a long period of time that made the spread of imperialism possible. It can also be argued that the reason France and the United States were able to follow Britain’s path of development relatively quickly was because they shared similar social institutions and value systems. In the same vein, Japan’s rise as an imperialist power can be interpreted as resulting from its active adoption of Western-style institutions and science and technology through the Meiji Restoration.
So, how did this imperialism unfold? Let’s examine the case of the British Empire. Portugal was the European nation that initially dominated trade in Asia. In the 17th century, Britain established the East India Company to challenge Portugal’s influence and entered into trade with Asian nations. Initially, it focused on commercial activities such as India’s spice and textile industries, but as the influence of the Mughal Empire, which ruled India, gradually weakened, it began to take an interest in territorial control as well. Ultimately, Britain used its military power to secure control over India and began governing the subcontinent through the East India Company. Subsequently, following the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857, the East India Company’s system of rule came to an end, and the British Raj—under which the British government directly ruled India—was established. Following decades of independence movements and Mahatma Gandhi’s campaign of nonviolent resistance, India achieved independence in 1947, after World War II. Many other colonized nations underwent a similar process. Western powers, which initially entered these regions under the pretext of trade and cultural exchange, gradually mobilized military and political power to expand their influence over time, ultimately establishing systems of colonial rule.
This imperialist colonial rule naturally provoked strong resistance from the colonized nations. The primary reason was the various forms of oppression perpetrated by the imperialist powers. Beginning with control over trade negotiations, they seized military and administrative authority, and ultimately stripped the colonized nations of their sovereignty. A particularly serious issue was the interference with the cultures and traditions of the colonized nations. Imperialist nations did not view colonial residents as their equals and often regarded the colonies as mere tools for their own interests. In the process, local cultures and traditions were suppressed, and Western values and institutions were often imposed. In fact, one of the main causes of the Sepoy Mutiny that broke out in India in 1857 was cultural and religious conflict. At the time, soldiers were required to bite open the packaging of new ammunition issued by the British Army; rumors spread that the packaging material contained beef and pork fat, sparking fierce opposition from Hindu and Muslim soldiers. Furthermore, some imperialist nations restructured colonial economies to their own advantage and forcibly relocated countless people through the slave trade to exploit them as a labor force.
Although the imperialist era was marked by the suppression of freedom in colonized nations and the perpetration of inhumane acts, it is difficult to conclude that there were absolutely no positive effects. The most frequently cited positive aspect is the spread of Western institutions and technologies—which were advanced in various fields at the time—to colonial regions. Some scholars note that the imperialist era saw the establishment of a unified administrative system, the construction of transportation infrastructure such as railroads and ports, the introduction of modern education systems, and the expansion of public health systems. Furthermore, it is true that the dissemination of technologies and production methods developed after the Industrial Revolution to colonial nations led to improvements in industrial and technological standards in some regions. Of course, while many of these changes were implemented to enhance the efficiency of colonial rule, they ultimately served as a foundation for national development after independence.
The question that arises now is whether imperialism could have been beneficial to colonial nations, assuming there was no cultural repression, racial discrimination, or political oppression. If discrimination and oppression—the greatest problems of the imperialist era—had not existed, would sharing the technology, institutions, and economic benefits developed under the protection of a great power necessarily be viewed as a bad choice? To understand this, let’s consider a hypothetical scenario. What would happen if two nations with a vast economic disparity were to form a single political community? By sharing the infrastructure, education, welfare, and industrial systems of the relatively more developed nation, the economically lagging region might experience rapid growth. In actual history, we can find examples where specific regions enjoyed economic benefits after becoming part of a major power. However, the existence of such economic benefits does not mean that all problems are solved.
Even if economic benefits are provided, issues of culture and identity remain. When people with different languages, lifestyles, historical experiences, religions, and values live within a single political community, the potential for conflict always exists. Even in the absence of state-level cultural repression, discrimination and conflict can arise as people from different cultural backgrounds coexist within the same society. Ultimately, human society is not driven solely by economic interests; cultural identity and a sense of community are also crucial factors.
Similar examples can be found even today. While South Korea, having a relatively homogeneous language and cultural sphere, experiences fewer such issues, conflicts stemming from cultural and ethnic differences continue in various regions around the world. Prominent examples include the Catalan independence movement and the Kosovo conflict. The Catalan independence movement has centered on issues of regional identity and autonomy, and ethnic and cultural differences were also among the key factors behind the Kosovo conflict. Of course, these cases are not identical to situations of colonial rule, but they demonstrate how crucial culture and identity are in political conflicts. Through these examples, we can confirm that it is difficult to maintain a community based solely on economic interests.
Imperialism, which began to spread in earnest in the 17th century, had largely dissolved by the mid-20th century. Imperialism, which persisted for hundreds of years, left indelible scars and memories in the nations that experienced colonial rule. Of course, there were historical limitations at the time, as awareness of human rights was not yet fully established as it is today. However, such historical context cannot justify the violence, exploitation, and discrimination committed by imperialist nations. History does not allow for “what-if” scenarios, but we can imagine one possibility. What if, after discovering new territories, imperialist nations had established equal trade relationships based on mutual respect rather than conquest and domination? Although the pace of development might have been slower than it is today, the nations that experienced colonial rule might have been able to grow by adopting modern technology and institutions without the scars of oppression and exploitation.
Of course, this is merely a hypothetical scenario. However, we must remember the violence and oppression left behind by imperialism throughout history, as well as the countless conflicts and wounds that resulted from it. No matter how much we discuss the positive aspects of imperialism, behind it all lay the suffering and sacrifice of countless people. Therefore, imperialism cannot be evaluated solely from the perspective of economic achievements or the spread of technology; through these historical experiences, humanity must learn the lesson that superiority in power does not necessarily equate to justice.
